Notes based on How Learning Works : Seven Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching by Susan A. Ambrose, Michael W. Bridges, , Michele DiPietro, , Marsha C. Lovett, Marie K. Norman, and Richard E. Mayer.  Wiley 2010.

Chapter 1: Prior knowledge.

There can be a mismatch between the prior knowledge and how it needs to be used in the new course.  In addition, “we may uncover misconceptions … [in] prior knowledge that are actively interfering with [learning]”.  Overestimating prior knowledge can lead to “a shaky foundation”.

Idea: “prior knowledge can help or hinder learning”.

Prior knowledge may be inactive, insufficient, inappropriate, or inaccurate (hinders).

Or it may be activated, sufficient, appropriate, accurate (helps).

Activation: Small prompts (“think of the second problem in relation to the first”) can help with activation.

Sufficiency:  Declarative knowledge (“knowledge of facts and concepts that can be stated or declared”) vs procedural knowledge (“knowing how and knowing when to apply various procedures, methods, theories…”).  Knowing what vs how vs when are different ways of knowing the same topic.  Identify which the students need for a new task, and assess these separately.

Appropriateness: common meanings to words may make technical meanings harder to use.

Accuracy: Isolated facts can be corrected, but flawed models (misconceptions) “are difficult to refute”.  “Conceptual change often occurs gradually” – more than a single refutation is needed.

Strategies

Gauge prior knowledge: talk to colleagues, use a diagnostic (concept inventory), use self-assessment (“I have heard the term”, “I could define it”, “I could explain it”, “I could use it to solve problems”), use group brainstorming, have them create a concept map, and look for patterns of errors.

Activate accurate prior knowledge: link new material to prior knowledge from other semesters; link material to prior knowledge from the current semester; use analogies to connect to everyday experience; have them reason based on what they already know.

Address insufficient prior knowledge: identify prior knowledge requirements (distinguish what and why – declarative, from how and when – procedural.); remediate by revising the course, having 1-2 classes or review, working with a few students individually, or encouraging more prerequisite coursework.

Help students recognize inappropriate prior knowledge: when is it appropriate to apply this idea?; provide rules of thumb; be explicit about conventions and which disciplines they apply to; identify where analogies break down

Correct inaccurate knowledge: use justified reasoning problems; extra time can help students be more thoughtful; offer repeat opportunities to use the accurate knowledge.

Chapter 2: Organizing knowledge

Experts organized knowledge in meaningful ways; new learners may have facts in isolation.

Matching knowledge organization and task demands is helpful.

Knowledge “nodes” may be less connected in new learners.  In experts, information can be processed into highly connected knowledge structures.  New learners may connect topics that seem similar on the surface, while experts use underlying meaning.

Provide a structure in which to fit the new knowledge; generating organizing schemes can be part of learning.

Strategies

Experts can have trouble seeing how they structure knowledge, so make a concept map to walk students through.  Think about knowledge organization in the context of a specific task.  Provide the overall organization of the course and each class meeting/week/etc.  Identify cases that illustrate looking more deeply to build connections (two things that are superficially similar or superficially different).  Connect each new concept explicitly to old ones.  Use multiple organization structures, not just one.  Incorporate concept mapping and sorting tasks.  Look for common mix-ups in student work.

Chapter 3: Motivation

Motivation is key.  Two core contributors: “the subjective value of a goal” and “the expectations for successful attainment of that goal”.

Goals: Students may be motivated by performance goals (“protecting a desired self-image” by performing a certain way in the activities).  Performance-approach goals lead to a “focus on attaining competence by meeting standards”.  Performance-avoidant goals lead to a “focus on avoiding incompetence”.  Students may have learning goals where they wan “to gain competence and truly learn what an activity or task can teach them”.  Students may have work-avoidant goals (“finish work as quickly as possible with as little effort as possible”).  Affective and social goals also have influence.  Goals may conflict, as well.

Value: Sometimes finishing a task (perhaps completing a level in a game) is satisfying.  This is attainment value.  Sometimes doing the task has intrinsic value.  A goal might be a stepping stone to some other goal, having instrumental value.  There can be multiple sources of value.

Expectancies: Outcome expectancies are beliefs about the outcomes associated with actions, such as “doing this means I’ll be able to do the problems on the exam”.  Efficacy expectancies are about whether “one is capable of identifying, organizing, initiating, and executing a course of action” to bring about the outcome.

Environment: It sits on a spectrum from supportive to unsupportive.

Three levers: value, efficacy, environment (so 8 possible combos – want a positive on all three).

low value, high efficacy –> evading behavior (this is doable but unimportant)
high value, low efficacy –> either hopeless (unsupportive environment) or fragile (supportive environment).  May feign understanding, make excuses about performance, and deny difficulty
high value, high efficacy –> defiant (in an unsupportive environment) or motivated (in a supportive environment).

Strategies

Value: Connect the material to the world; provide authentic tasks; show how the material is relevant to other courses; make clear the relevance of the skills to future professional lives; identify what I value in the course and reward that int he course incentive structure; show enthusiasm for the discipline.

Expectancy: Align all the elements (objectives, assessments, and instruction).  Find the right level for challenges in the course, and create assignments at that level.  Have early assignments that provide success opportunities.  Make the course goals and expectations clear.  Provide rubrics and targeted feedback.  Use fair standards and criteria.  Share information about how attributing success or failure to internal and external factors can shape success (help them attribute success to hard work, time management, choices of study strategies, etc, and to focus on what is controllable).  Describe effective strategies.

Value and Expectancy: Offer multiple options when it is possible.  Create space and time for reflection (what did you learn, what was a valuable feature of this, what did you do to prepare, what do you need to work on, what would you do differently)